Which of the following statements characterizing U.S. ghettos is/are true?
1) U.S. ghettos were created by design and enforced through racist laws and policies.
2) U.S. ghettos refer to highly segregated neighborhoods in cities, oftentimes characterized by a high concentration of racial minorities.
3) By the 1970s and 1980s, institutional ghettos morphed into jobless ghettos characterized by high poverty and unemployment.
4) All of the above.