As discussed by Sharp and Wall (2021), which of the following is a leading reason why features of Criterion A (from the DSM-5's Section III Alternative Model of Personality Disorders) do not tend to manifest before adolescence?

a. Children do not understand goal-planning or intentionality before they are teenagers. Therefore the self-direction domain of Criterion.
b. A cannot be adequately assessed, much less properly judged as dysfunctional.
c. Children have no stable individual differences or traits before adolescence.
d. It is not until adolescence that people typically have the advanced cognitive capacities (e.g., hypothetical reasoning, abstract thought, perspective-taking) for authoring their life story and developing normative (let alone dysregulated) senses of identity and self-direction.
e. Children and pre-teens are not distinguished from their parents enough to develop (dysregulated) identity and self-direction.