What combination of factors account for increasing segregation, including the rise of the fortified enclave, in the city of Sao Paolo, according to Caldeira? Select all that apply.
1. The significant growth of poverty following the Brazilian recession of the 1980s and 1990s, which made residential land unaffordable for the urban poor and pushed them toward favelas
2. The shift from military rule to a more democratic form of government and the concomitant rise of homeowner associations, which succeeded in improving the infrastructure of some neighborhoods but also contributed to the scarcity of cheap urban property for the poorest
3. The restructuring of the Sao Paolo economy from an industrial city to a city of finance, commerce and services, which has facilitated gentrification
4. Increasing rates of violent crime which has contributed to urban fear