A patient has hard, nonpitting edema of the left lower leg and ankle. The right leg has no edema. Based on these findings, the nurse recalls that:

a. Nonpitting, hard edema occurs with lymphatic obstruction.
b. Alterations in arterial function will cause edema.
c. Phlebitis of a superficial vein will cause bilateral edema.
d. Long-standing arterial obstruction will cause pitting edema.