Sam believes in an extreme version of transparency and open communication in his department. Because of this belief, he shares vital information about his department with managers at all levels and in all other departments at the company, including financial goals, income statements, budgets, sales, forecasts, and other company performance data. The type of management philosophy to which Sam adheres is best termed?
a. Open-book management.
b. Downward communication.
c. Upward management.
d. Invaluable transparency.
e. One-way communication.